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Rudolf A. Raff

Born: Nov. 10, 1941, Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada. U.S. Citizen

Education:

1963    B.S. Biochemistry, Pennsylvania State University

1967    Ph.D. Biochemistry, Duke University

Appointments:

1967-1969       Lieutenant, U.S. Navy, National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland

1969-1971       Postdoctoral Fellow; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Biology

1971-1975       Assistant Professor of Zoology, Indiana University

1975-1979       Associate Professor of Biology, Indiana University

1979-2000       Professor of Biology, Indiana University

1980-1982       Instructor-in-Chief, Embryology Course, Marine Biological Laboratory,   Woods Hole

1983-   Founder and Director, Indiana Molecular and Biology Institute, Indiana  University

1999-   Adjunct Professor, Department of History and Philosophy of Science, Indiana University

2000-   James H. Rudy Professor of Biology, Indiana University

2002    Distinguished Professor, Indiana University

Awards/Honors:

1963-1964       Shell Foundation Predoctoral Fellow

1964-1967       NIH Predoctoral Fellow

1969-1971       American Cancer Society Postdoctoral Fellow

1975-1980       NIH Research Career Development Award

1987-1988       Guggenheim Fellow

1997    Cecil H. and Ida Green Honors Professor, Texas Christian University

2000-   Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

2001            Kowalevsky Medal, St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists

Invited Lectures:

1981    Zwilling Lecture, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole

1983    Sigma Xi Public Lecturer, University of Oregon

1988    Royal Canadian Institute Public Lecture, Toronto

1994    Whitely Lecture, Friday Harbor

1995    Steinhouse Lecture, University of California, Irvine

1997    Abbott Lecture, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford Univ.

1997    Friday Night Lecture, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole

1997    Konigsberg Memorial Lecture, University of Virginia

1998    Presidential Inaugaral Symposium Speaker, Wayne State Univ.

1999    Distinguished Faculty Lecturer, Department of Zoology, Univ. Toronto

1999    City of Aomori Public Lecture, Japan

2001    Institute Jacques Monod, Paris, symposium in Honor of Nicole Le Douarin

2001    Annual Graduate Student Superspeaker, Duke Univ.

Professional Activities:

1982-1995       Associate Editor, Developmental Biology

1982-1991       Editorial Board, Developmental Biology:  A Comprehensive Synthesis

1984-1985       Chair, Biotechnology Committee, Indiana Corporation for Science and Technology

1985-1990       NSF Developmental Biology Panel

1987-1993       Associate Editor, Journal of Evolutionary Biology

1989-1994       Associate Editor, Biological Bulletin

1992-   Associate Editor, Journal of Theoretical Biology

1994-1996       Associate Editor, Roux's Archives of Developmental Biology

1996-   Associate Editor, Development, Genes and Evolution

1997-1999       Associate Editor, Biological Bulletin

1997    NIH Ad Hoc Postdoctoral Study Section

1997-   Advisory Committee, Shape of Life Project (Educational TV series), Sea Studios Foundation/ National Geographic

1997-   Chicago Museum of Science and Industry Genetics Exhibit Advisory Board

1998- Editor-in-Chief, Evolution and Development

1998    Advisory Board, Developmental Biology Curriculum, BSCS

1999    Editor, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution

2000-   NSF Developmental Mechanisms Panel

2000-2002 President, Division of Developmental Evolutionary Biology, Society of Integrative and Comparative Biology.

2001 Overseer’s Committee, Dept. of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard Univ.

2001-   Editorial board, History of Biology

2001-   Editorial board, Biology and Philosophy

2001-   Faculty of 1000, on line reviews of major biology papers

Research Focus:

My main focus has been on the synthesis of evolutionary and developmental biology, and on the use of molecular systematics in the inference of origins of morphological novelties and in the origins of animal body plans. My research currently addresses the evolution of developmental processes, the role of development in macroevolution, and the role of evolution of developmental processes in the origin of animal body plans.

Publications:

Books

Publications:

Books  Raff, R.A. and T.C. Kaufman. 1983. Embryos, Genes, and Evolution, Macmillan. Reprinted with new introduction by  Indiana University Press 1991.

Jeffery, W.R. and R.A. Raff (editors). 1983. Space, Time, and Pattern in Embryonic Development. Alan R. Liss, Inc.

Raff, R.A. and E.C. Raff (editors). 1987. Development as an Evolutionary Process. Alan R. Liss, Inc.

Raff, R.A. 1996. The Shape of Life: Genes, Development and the Evolution of Animal Form. University of Chicago  Press.

Research Papers and Reviews:

1. Raff, R.A. 1960. Two species of Odonata not previously recorded from Pennsylvania. Entom. News 71:262.

2. Raff, R.A. and R.W. Wheat. 1966. Occurrence of a 3-amino sugar in the cell wall of Citrobacter freundii 8090.  Biochem. Biophys. Acta 127:271-273.

3. Luderitz, O., E. Ruschmann, O. Westphal, R. Raff, and R. Wheat. 1967. On the occurrence of 3-amino-3,  6-dideoxy hexoses in Salmonella and related bacteria. J. Bact. 93:1681-1687.

4. Raff, R.A. and R.W. Wheat. 1967. Characterization of 3-amino-3, 6 dideoxy-D-glucose from a bacterial  lipopolysaccharide. J. Biol. Chem. 242:4610-4613.

5. Raff, R.A. and R.W. Wheat. 1968. The naturally occurring amino sugars. In Handbooked.), p. D-65. Chemical  Rubber Co., Cleveland, Ohio.

6. Raff, R.A. and R.W. Wheat. 1968. Carbohydrate composition of the phenolsoluble lipopolysaccharides of  Citrobacter freundii 8090. J. Bact. 95:2035-2043.

7. Raff, R.A. and G.M. Meaburn. 1969. Photochemical reaction mechanisms for production of organic compounds in a primitive Earth atmosphere. Nature 221:459-460.

8. Raff, R.A., E.C. Raff, G.H. Beatty, and A.F. Beatty. 1969. Odonata of the Potomac River drainage in Pennsylvania. Proc. Penn. Acad. Sci. 43:114-118.

9. White, H.B. and R.A. Raff. 1970. The early spring emergence of Anax junius Drury (Odonata: Aeschindae) in central Pennsylvania. Canadian Entom. 102:498-499.

10. White, H.B. and R.A. Raff. 1970. The nymph of Williamsonia lintneri (Hagen) (Odonata: Corduliidae). Psyche 77:252-257.

11. Raff, R.A. 1970. Induction of a fatty acid synthesis in cultured mammalian cells: effects of cycloheximide and x-rays. J. Cell Physiol. 75:341-352.

12. Raff, R.A. 1970. Molecular weights of Hydra and planarian ribosomal RNA. Curr. Mod. Biol. 3:250-252.

13. Raff, R.A. and E.C. Raff. 1970. Respiratory mechanisms and the metazoan fossil record. Nature 228:1003-1005.

14. Raff, R.A. and R.W. Wheat. 1970. Revision and update of 1968 chapter.

15. Raff, R.A., G. Greenhouse, K.W. Gross, and P.R. Gross. 1971. Synthesis and storage of microtubule proteins by sea urchin embryos. J. Cell Biol. 50:516-527.

16. Raff, R.A. 1972. Polar lobe formation by embryos of Ilyanassa obsoleta: effects of inhibitors of microtubule and microfilament function. Expt. Cell Res. 71:455-459.

17. Hynes, R.O., R.A. Raff, and P.R. Gross. 1972. Properties of the three cell types in 16- cell sea urchin embryos:  aggregation and microtubule protein synthesis. Devel. Biol.

27:150-164.

18. Raff, R.A., H. Colot, S.E. Selvig, and P.R. Gross. 1972. Oogenetic origin of messenger RNA  for embryonic synthesis of microtubule proteins. Nature 235:211-214 19. Daniel, A., R.A. Raff, and R.W. Wheat. 1972. Identification of products of the uridinediphospho-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine oxidoreductose system from Citrobacter freundii ATCC10053. J. Bact. 110:110-116.

20. Raff, R.A. and H.R. Mahler. 1972. The nonsymbiotic origin of mitochondria. Science 177:575-582.

21. Raff, R.A. and J.F. Kaumeyer. 1973. Soluble microtubule proteins of the sea urchin embryo: partial characterization of the protein and behavior of the pool in early development. Devel. Biol. 32:309-320.

22. Conrad, G.W., D.C. Williams, R.F. Turner, K.M. Newrock, and R.A. Raff. 1973. Microfilaments in the polar lobe constriction of fertilized eggs of Ilyanassa obsoleta. J. Cell Biol. 59:228-233.

23. Jenkins, N., M.W. Taylor, and R.A. Raff. 1973. In vitro translation of oogenetic messenger RNA of sea urchin eggs and picornavirus RNA with a cell-free system from sarcoma 1980. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70:3287-3291.

24. Newrock, K.M. and R.A. Raff. 1975. Polar lobe specific regulation of translation in embryos of Ilyanassa obsoleta. Devel. Biol. 42:242-261.

25. Raff, R.A., K.M. Newrock, and R.D. Secrist. 1975. Regulation of microtubule protein synthesis in embryos of the marine snail, Ilyanassa obsoleta. Devel. Biol. 44:369-374.

26. Green, L.H., J.W. Brandis, F.R. Turner, and R.A. Raff. 1975. Cytoplasmic microtubule proteins of the embryo of Drosophila melanogaster. Biochemistry 14:4487- 4491.

27. Raff, R.A. and H.R. Mahler. 1975. The symbiont that never was: an inquiry into the evolutionary origin of the mitochondrion. Society for Experimental Biology Symposium 29:41-92. Cambridge University Press.

28. Mahler, H.R. and R.A. Raff. 1975. The evolutionary origin of the mitochondrion: a nonsymbiotic model. Int. Rev. Cytol. 43:1-124.

29. Raff, R.A., J.W. Brandis, L.H. Green, J.R. Kaumeyer, and E.C. Raff. 1975. Microtubule protein pools in early development. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 253:304-317.

30. Raff, R.A. 1975. Regulation of microtubule synthesis and utilization during early embryonic development of the sea urchin. Amer. Zool. 15:661-678.

31. Sargent, T.D. and R.A. Raff. 1976. Protein synthesis and messenger RNA stability in activated, enucleate sea urchin eggs are not affected by Actinomycin D. Devel. Biol. 48:327-335.

32. Raff, R.A., K.M. Newrock, R.D. Secrist, and F.R. Turner. 1976. Regulation of protein synthesis in embryos of Ilyanassa obsoleta. Amer. Zool. 16:529-545.

33. Raff, E.C., A.J. Brothers, and R.A. Raff. 1976. A microtubule assembly mutant. Nature 260:615-617.

34. Raff, R.A. 1977. The molecular determination of morphogenesis. Bioscience  27:394-400.

35. Brandis, J.W. and R.A. Raff. 1978. Translation of oogenetic mRNA in sea urchin eggs and embryos: demonstration of a change in translational efficiency following fertilization.  Devel. Biol. 67:99-113.

36. Jenkins, N.A., J.F. Kaumeyer, E.M. Young, and R.A. Raff. 1978. A test for masked message: the template activity of messenger ribonucleoprotein particles isolated from sea urchin eggs. Devel. Biol. 63:279-298.

37. Kaumeyer, J.F., N.A. Jenkins, and R.A. Raff. 1978. Messenger ribonucleoprotein particles in unfertilized sea urchin eggs. Devel. Biol. 63:266-278.

38. Raff, E.C. and R.A. Raff. 1978. Tubulin and microtubules in the early development of the axolotl and other amphibia. Amer. Zool. 18:237-251.

39. Kammer, T.W. and R.A. Raff. 1978. Additional information on Hoploparia bearpawensis Feldmann (Crustacea: Decapoda) from the Bearpaw Shale (Cretaceous: Campanian) of northeastern Montana. J. Paleontol. 52:1388-1389.

40. Brandis, J.W. and R.A. Raff. 1979. Elevation of protein synthesis: a complex response to fertilization. Nature (London) 278:467-469.

41. Green, L.H., E.C. Raff, and R.A. Raff. 1979. Tubulin from a developing insect embryo undergoing rapid mitosis: Factors regulating in vitro assembly of tubulin from Drosophila melanogaster. Insect Biochem. 9:489-495.

42. Young, E.M. and R.A. Raff. 1979. Messenger ribonucleoprotein particles in developing sea urchin embryos. Devel. Biol. 72:24-40.

43. Kemphues, K.J., R.A. Raff, T.C. Kaufman, and E.C. Raff. 1979. A mutation in a structural gene for a testis-specific ?-tubulin in Drosophila melanogaster. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76:3991-3995.

44. Raff, R.A. 1980. Masked messenger RNA and the regulation of protein synthesis in eggs and embryos. In "Cell Biology: A Comprehensive Treatise," Vol. VI, D. Prescott and L. Goldstein (eds). Academic Press, Inc.

45. Kemphues, K.J., E.C. Raff, R.A. Raff, and T.C. Kaufman. 1980. Mutation in a testis-specific tubulin in Drosophila: Analysis of its effects on meiosis and map location of the gene. Cell 21:445-451.

46. Raff, R.A., J.W. Brandis, C.J. Huffman, A.L. Koch, and D.E. Leister. 1981. Protein synthesis as an early response to fertilization of the sea urchin egg: A model. Devel. Biol. 86:265-271.

47. Loyd, J.E., E.C. Raff, and R.A. Raff. 1981. Site and timing of synthesis of tubulin and other proteins during oogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster. Devel. Biol. 876:272-284.

48. Wells, D.E., R.M. Showman, W.H. Klein, and R.A. Raff. 1981. Delayed recruitment of maternal histone H3 mRNA in sea urchin embryos. Nature 292:477-478.

49. Raff, E.C., M.T. Fuller, T.C. Kaufman, K.J. Kemphues, J.E. Rudolph, and R.A. Raff. 1982. Regulation of tubulin gene expression during embryogenesis in Drosophila melanogaster. Cell 28:33-40.

50. Horn, H.S., J.T. Bonner, W. Dohle, M.J. Katz, M.A.R. Koehl, H. Meinhardt, R.A. Raff, W-E. Reif, S.C. Stearns, and R. Stratham. 1982. Adaptive aspects of development; group report. In "Evolution and Development," J.T. Bonner (ed.) pp. 215-235. Dahlem Konferezen, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.

51. Wells, D.E., A.M. Bruskin, D.A. O'Brochta, and R.A. Raff. 1982. Prevalent RNA sequences of  mitochondrial origin in sea urchin embryos. Devel. Biol. 92:557-562.

52. Raff, R.A. 1982. Maternal mRNA utilization in the control of protein synthesis by sea urchin embryos. Cell Differen. 11:305-307.

53. Showman, R.M., D.E. Wells, J. Anstrom, D.A. Wells, and R.A. Raff. 1982. Message- specific sequestration of maternal histone mRNA in the sea urchin egg. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79:5944-5947.

54. Kemphues, K.F., T.C. Kaufman, R.A. Raff, and E.C. Raff. 1982. The testis-specific tubulin subunit in Drosophila melanogaster has multiple function in spermatogenesis. Cell 31:655-670.

55. Raff, R.A. 1983. Localization and temporal control of expression of maternal histone mRNA in sea  urchin embryos. In "Time, Space, and Pattern in Embryonic Development," W.R. Jeffery and R.A. Raff (eds.). Alan R. Liss and Co., New York.  56. Showman, R.M., D.E. Wells, J.A. Anstrom, D.A. Hursh, D.S. Leaf, and R.A. Raff. 1983. Subcellular localization of maternal histone mRNAs and the control of histone synthesis in the sea urchin embryo. In "Molecular Aspects of Early Development," G.M. Malacinski and W.H. Klein (eds.). Plenum Press, New York.

57. Angerer, L.M., D.V. DeLeon, R.C. Angerer, D.E. Wells, R.M. Showman, and R.A. Raff. 1984. Delayed accumulation of maternal histone mRNA during sea urchin oogenesis. Devel. Biol. 101:477-484.

58. Raff, R.A., J. Anstrom, D.S. Leaf, J-H. Loo, R.M. Showman, and R.A. Raff. 1984. Origin of a gene regulatory mechanism in echinoderm evolution. Nature 310:312-314.

59. Raff, R.A. and R.M. Showman. 1985. Control of maternal mRNA utilization during early embryonic development. Invited chapter for "The Biology of Fertilization," C. Metz and A. Monroy (eds.). Academic Press.

60. Raff, E.C. and R.A. Raff. 1985. Possible functions of the homeobox. Nature 313:185.

61. Wells, D.E., J.A. Anstrom, R.A. Raff, S.R. Murray, and R.M. Showman. 1986. Maternal stores of subtype histone mRNAs are not required for normal early development of sea urchin embryos.

 Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 195:252-258.

62. Shyu, A.-B., R.A. Raff, and T. Blumenthal. 1986. Expression of the vitellogenin gene in female and  male sea urchins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:3865-3869.

63. Shyu, A.-B., T. Blumenthal, and R.A. Raff. 1987. Organization of the vitellogenin gene of the sea  urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Nucleic Acids Res. 15:10405-10417.

64. Raff, R.A., J.A. Anstrom, J.E. Chin, K.G. Field, M.T. Ghiselin, D.J. Lane, G.J. Olsen, N.R. Pace, A.L. Parks, and E.C. Raff. 1987. Molecular and developmental correlates of macroevolution. In R.A. Raff and E.C. Raff (eds.) Development as an Evolutionary Process. A.R. Liss, N.Y.

65. Raff, E.C., B. Diaz, M. Kimble, J. Hoyle, R. Raff, J. Rudolph, and M. Subler. 1987. The origin of  multigene families: Are there both functional and regulatory constraints? In R.A. Raff and E.C. Raff  (eds.). Development as an Evolutionary Process. A.R. Liss, New York.

66. Showman, R.M., D.S. Leaf, J.A. Anstrom, and R.A. Raff. 1987. Translation of maternal  histone mRNAs in sea urchin embryos: A test of control by 5' cap methylation. Dev. Biol.  121:284-287.

67. Leaf, D.S., J.A. Anstrom, J.E. Chin, M.A. Harkey, R.M. Showman, and R.A. Raff. 1987. Antibodies  to a fusion protein identify a cDNA clone encoding msp 130, a primary mesenchyme-specific cell  surface protein of the sea urchin embryo. Dev. Biol. 121:29-40.

68. Raff, R.A. 1987. Constraint, flexibility, and phylogenetic history in the evolution of direct  development in sea urchins. Dev. Biol. 119:6-19.

69. Anstrom, J.A., J.E. Chin, D.S. Leaf, A.L. Parks, and R.A. Raff. 1987. Localization and expression of msp 130, a primary mesenchyme lineage-specific cell surface protein of the sea urchin embryo.

 Development 101:255-265.

70. Hursh, D.A., M.E. Andrews, and R.A. Raff. 1987. A sea urchin gene encodes a polypeptide  homologous to epidermal growth factor. Science 237:1487-1490.

71. Raff, R.A., K.G. Field, M.T. Ghiselin, D.J. Lane, G.J. Olsen, A.L. Parks, B.A. Parr, N.R. Pace, and  E.C. Raff. 1988. Molecular analysis of distant phylogenetic relationships in echinoderms. In  Echinoderm Phylogeny and Evolutionary Biology (C.R.C. Paul and A.B. Smith, eds.). Oxford  University Press, pp. 29-41.

72. Parks, A.L., B.A. Parr, J.E. Chin, D.S. Leaf, and R.A. Raff. 1988. Molecular analysis of heterochrony in the evolution of direct development in sea urchins. J. Evol. Biol. 1:27-44.

73. Field, K., G.J. Olsen, D.J. Lane, S.J. Giovannoni, N.R..Pace, M.T. Ghiselin, E.C. Raff, and R.A. Raff. 1988. Phylogeny of the animal kingdom based on 18S rRNA sequence data. Science 239:748-753.

74. Anstrom, J.A., J. Chin, A.L. Parks, and R.A. Raff. 1988. Immunocytochemical evidence suggesting heterogeneity in the population of sea urchin egg cortical granules. Dev. Biol. 125:1-7.

75. Raff, R.A. 1988. Direct developing sea urchins: a system for the study of developmental processes in evolution. In R. Burke, P. Mladenov, P. Lambert, and R. Parsley (eds.). Proc. 6th International Echinoderm Conference. Victoria, B.C. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 63-69.

76. Anstrom, J.A. and R.A. Raff. 1988. Sea urchin primary mesenchyme cells: Relation of cell polarity  to the epithelial-mesenchymal transformation. Dev. Biol. 130:57-66.

77. Raff, R.A. 1988. The selfish cell lineage. Cell 54:445-446 (book review).

78. Raff, R.A. and G.A. Wray. 1989. Heterochrony: developmental mechanisms and  evolutionary results. J. Evol. Biol. 2:409-434.

79. Raff, R.A., B.A. Parr, A.L. Parks, and G.A. Wray. 1989. Heterochrony and other mechanisms of radical evolutionary change in early development. In M. Nitecki (ed). Evolutionary Innovation: Patterns and Processes, pp. 71-98.

80. Raff, R.A. 1988. Ribosomal RNA sequences and the early history of the metazoa. In T. Broadhead  (ed.) Molecular Evolution and the Fossil Record, Paleontological Society Short Course, Geological  Society of America. Number 1, pp. 63-74.

 81. Raff, R.A., K.G. Field, G.J. Olsen, S.J. Giovannoni, D.J. Lane, M.T. Ghiselin, N.R. Pace, and E.C.  Raff. 1989. Metazoan phylogeny based on analysis of 18S ribosomal RNA. In B. Fernholm (ed.) The  Hierarchy of Life, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 247-260.

 82. Raff, R.A. 1989. The resurrection of recapitulation. Nature 337:518 (book review).

 83. Wray, G.A. and R.A. Raff. 1989. Evolutionary modification of cell lineage in the direct-developing  sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Dev. Biol. 132:458-470.

 84. Bisgrove, B. and R.A. Raff. 1989. Homology between the larval nervous system of typical and direct  developing sea urchins. Dev. Growth Differen. 31:363-370.

 85. Delgadillo-Reynoso, M.G., D. Rollo, D.A. Hursh, and R.A. Raff. 1989. Structural analysis of the  gene uEGF in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus reveals more similarity to vertebrate  than to invertebrate genes with EGF-like repeats. J. Mol. Evol. 29:314-327.

 86. Henry, J.J., S. Amemiya, G.A. Wray, and R.A. Raff. 1989. Early inductive interactions are involved  in restricting cell fates of mesomeres in sea urchin embryos. Dev. Biol. 136:140-153.

 87. Parks, A.L., B.W. Bisgrove, G.A. Wray, and R.A. Raff. 1989. Direct development in the sea urchin  Phyllacanthus parvispinus Cidaroidea: phylogenetic history and functional modification. Biol. Bull.  177:96-109.

 88. Raff, R.A. 1989. To evolve a horse. Cell 58:233-234 (book review).

 89. Parr, B.P., A.L. Parks, and R.A. Raff. 1990. Promoter structure and protein sequence of msp 130, a  lipid-anchored sea urchin glycoprotein. J. Biol. Chem. 265:1408-1413.

 90. Raff, R.A. 1990. Introduction to Charles Sternberg's "Life of a Fossil Hunter" (1909), Indiana  University reprint.

 91. Henry, J.J. and R.A. Raff. 1990. Evolutionary change in the process of dorsoventral axis  determination in the direct developing sea urchin, Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Dev. Biol. 141:55-69.

 92. Raff, R.A., L. Herlands, V.B. Morris, and J. Healy. 1990. Evolutionary modification of echinoid sperm  correlates with developmental mode. Dev. Growth Differen. 32:283-291.

 93. Wray, G.A. and R.A. Raff. 1990. Novel origins of lineage founder cells in the direct-developing  sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Dev. Biol. 141:41-54.

 94. Smith, M.J., J.D.G. Boom, and R.A. Raff. 1990. Single copy DNA distance between two congeneric  sea urchin species exhibiting radically different modes of development. Mol. Biol. Evol. 7(4):315-326.

 95. Scott, L.B., W.J. Lennarz, R.A. Raff, and G.A. Wray. 1990. The "lecithotrophic" sea urchin  Heliocidaris erythrogramma lacks typical yolk platelets and yolk glycoproteins. Dev. Biol.  138:188-193.

 96. Wray, G.A. and R.A. Raff. 1990. Heterochronic mechanisms in the early development of sea  urchins. In R. Raff (ed.) Heterochronic Changes in Development. Seminars in Developmental Biology.

 W.B. Saunders, London, 1:245-252.   97. Raff, R.A. 1990. A sea urchin gene containing multiple EGF repeats is similar to vertebrate  EGF-containing genes. Molec. Repro. Devel. 27:66-72.

 98. Henry, J.J., G.A. Wray, and R.A. Raff. 1990. The dorsoventral axis is specified prior   to first cleavage in the direct developing sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma.

 Development 110:875-884.

 99. Field, K.G., J.M. Turbeville, R.A. Raff, and B.A. Best. 1990. Evolutionary relationships of  phylum Cnidaria inferred from 18S rRNA sequence data. Fourth International Congress of Systematic  and Evolutionary Biology, College Park, Maryland (abstract).

  100. Raff, R.A., G.A. Wray, and J.J. Henry. 1991. Implications of radical evolutionary changes in  early development for concepts of developmental constraint. In L. Warren and H. Koprowski (eds.). New  Perspectives on Evolution. Wiley-Liss, N.Y. p. 189-207.

  101. Turbeville, J.M., D.M. Pfeifer, K.G. Field, and R.A. Raff. 1991. The phylogenetic position of  arthropods as inferred from 18S rRNA sequences. Mol. Biol. Evol. 8:669- 686.    102. Wray, G.A. and R.A. Raff. 1991. The evolution of developmental strategy. Trends in Ecology  and Evolution 6:45-50.

  103. Wray, G.A. and R.A. Raff. 1991. Rapid evolution of gastrulaton mechanisms in a  direct-developing sea urchin. Evolution, 45:1741-1750.

  104. Henry, J.J., G.A. Wray, and R.A. Raff. 1991. Mechanism of an alternate type of  echinoderm blastula formation: The wrinkled blastula of the sea urchin Heliocidaris   erythrogramma. Devel. Growth Differen. 33 (4:)317-328.

  105. Bisgrove, B.W., M.E. Andrews, and R.A. Raff. 1991. Fibropellins, products of an EGF  repeat-containing gene, form a unique extracellular matrix structure that surrounds the sea  urchin embryo. Dev. Biol. 146:89-99.

  106. Turbeville, J.M., K.G. Field, and R.A. Raff. 1992. Phylogenetic relationships of  nemertine inferred from ribosomal RNA sequence analysis: molecular data as a test of  morphological character. Mol. Biol. Evol. 9:235-249.

  107. Raff, R.A., J.J. Henry, and G.A. Wray. 1992. Rapid evolution of early development:  Reorganization of early morphogenetic processes in a direct-developing sea urchin. In R.  Keller (ed.) Gastrulation: Movements, Patterns and Molecules. Plenum Press, New York, p. 251-280.

  108. Raff, R.A., J.J. Henry, and G.A. Wray. 1992. Rapid evolution of early development:  reorganization of early morphogenetic processes in a direct-developing sea urchin. In R.

 Keller, W.H. Clark, Jr., and F. Griffin (eds.). Gastrulation, Movements, Patterns and  Molecules. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 251-280.

  109. Henry, J.J., K.M. Klueg, and R.A. Raff. 1992. Evolutionary dissociation between cleavage, cell  lineage and embryonic axes in sea urchin embryos. Development 114:931-938.

  110. Raff, R.A. 1992. Direct-developing sea urchins and the evolutionary reorganization of early  development. BioEssays 14:211-218.

 111. Riutort, M. K. G. Field,, J. M. Turbeville, R. A. Raff, and J. Baguna. 1992. Enzyme  electrophoresis, 18S rRNA sequences, and levels of phylogenetic resolution among several  species of freshwater planarians (Platyhelminthes, Tricladida, Paludicola). Can. J. Zool. 70:  1425-1439.

  112. Raff, R.A. 1992. Evolution of developmental decisions and morphogenesis: the view from  two camps. Development 1992 Supplement 15-22.

  113. McMillan, W.O., R.A. Raff, and S.R. Palumbi. 1993. Population genetic consequences of  developmental evolution in sea urchins (Genus Heliocidaris). Evolution 46:1299-1312.

  114. Bisgrove, B.W. and R.A. Raff. 1993. The SpEGFIII gene encodes a member of the fibropellins:  EGF repeat-containing proteins that form the extracellular meshwork of the sea urchin embryo apical lamina.

 Dev. Biol. 157:526-538.

 115. Riutort, M., K. G. Field, R. A. Raff, and J. Baguna. 1993. 18S rRNA sequences and phylogeny of  Platyhelminthes. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 21: 71-77.

  116. Raman, V., M.E. Andrews, M.A. Harkey, and R.A. Raff. 1993. Protein-DNA interactions at  putative regulatory regions of two coordinately expressed genes, msp130 and PM27, during  skeletogenesis in sea urchin embryos. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 37:499-507.

  117. Turbeville, J.M., J.R. Schulz, and R.A. Raff. 1993. Deuterostome phylogeny and the sister  group of the chordates: evidence from molecules and morphology. Mol. Biol. Evol. 11:648-655.

  118. Raff, R.A. 1994. Developmental mechanisms in the evolution of animal form: origins and  evolvability of body plans. In Early Life on Earth . S. Bengston, (ed.). Columbia University Press, New  York. pp. 489-500.

  119. Marshall, C.R., E.C. Raff, and R.A. Raff. 1994. Dollo's Law and the death and  resurrection of genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:12283-12287.

  120. Raff, R.A., C.R. Marshall, and J.M. Turbeville. 1994. Using DNA sequences to unravel the  Cambrian radiation of the animal phyla. Ann. Revs. Ecol. Syst. 25:351-375.

  121. Henry, J.J. and R.A. Raff. 1994. Progressive determination of cell fates along the  dorsoventral axis in the sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol.

 204:62-69.

  122. Hahn, J.-H., J.C. Kissinger, and R.A. Raff. 1995. Structure and evolution of Cyl cytoplasmic  actin-encoding genes in the indirect- and direct-developing sea urchins Heliocidaris tuberculata  andHeliocidaris erythrogramma. Gene 153:219-224.

  123. Harkey, M.A., K. Klueg, P. Sheppard and R.A. Raff. 1995. Structure, expression and  extracellular targeting of PM27, a skeletal protein associated specifically with growth of the sea  urchin larval spicule. Dev. Biol. 168:549-566.

  124. Bisgrove, B.W., M.E. Andrews, and R.A. Raff. 1995. Evolution of the fibropellin  gene family and patterns of fibropellin gene expression in sea urchin phylogeny. J. Mol. Evol.  41:34-45.     125. Raff, R.A. and E.M. Popodi. 1996. Evolutionary approaches to analyzing development. In  Molecular Zoology: Advances, Strategies and Protocols. J.D. Ferraris and S.R. Palumbi (eds.). John  Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 245-265.

  126. Popodi, E., M.E. Andrews, and R.A. Raff. 1995. A sea urchin homologue of ceh-19, an  unusual homeobox-containing gene from a nematode. Gene 164:367-368.    127. Gilbert, S.F., J.M. Opitz and R.A. Raff. 1996. Resynthesizing evolutionary and   developmental biology. Dev. Biol. 173:357-372.

 128. Bolker, J.A. and R.A. Raff. 1996. Homology and developmental genetics. BioEssays  18:489-494.

 129. Popodi, E., J.C. Kissinger, M.E. Andrews, and R.A. Raff. 1996. Sea urchin Hox genes: insights into  the ancestral Hox cluster. Mol. Biol. Evol. 13:1078-1086.

 130. Hahn, J.-H. and R. A. Raff. 1996. Expression of CyI cytoplasmic actin genes in sea urchin  development. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 29:474-480.

 131. Klueg, K., M.A. Harkey, and R.A. Raff. 1997. Mechanisms of evolutionary changes in timing,  spatial expression, and mRNA processing in the msp130 gene in a direct- developing sea urchin,  Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Dev. Biol. 182:121-133.

 132. Hardy, B.L., V. Raman, and R.A. Raff. 1996. Recovery of mammalian DNA from middle  paleolithic stone tools. J. Anthro. Sci., 24: 601-611.

 133. Kissinger, J.C., J.H. Hahn, and R.A. Raff. 1997. Rapid evolution in a conserved gene family.

 Evolution of the actin gene family in the sea urchin genus Heliocidaris and related genera. Mol. Biol.  Evol. 14: 654-665.

 134. Aguinaldo, A.M.A., J.M. Turbeville, L.S. Linford, L. Hebshi, M.C. Rivera, J.R. Garey, R.A. Raff, and  J.A. Lake. 1997. Evidence from 18S ribosomal DNA for a clade of nematodes, arthropods and other  molting animals. Nature, 387: 489-493.

  135. Bolker, J. A. and R. A. Raff. 1997. Beyond worms, flies and mice: It's time to widen the scope of  developmental biology. Jour. NIH Res. 9: 35-39.

  136. Abouheif, E., M. Akam, W. J. Dickinson, P. W. H. Holland, A. Meyer, N. H. Patel, R. A. Raff,  V. L. Roth, and G. A. Wray. 1997. Homology and Developmental Genes. Trends Genet. 13: 432-433.

  137. Haag, E. H. and R. A. Raff. 1998. Isolation and characterization of three mRNAs enriched in  embryos of the direct-developing sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma: evolution of larval ectoderm.

 Devel. Genes Evol. 208:188-204.

  138. Ferkowicz, M. J., M. C. Stander, and R. A. Raff. 1998. Phylogenetic relationships and  developmental expression of three sea urchin Wnt genes. Mol. Biol. Evol. 15: 809-819.

  139. Kissinger, J.C. and R.A. Raff. 1998. Evolutionary changes in sites and timing of  expression of actin genes in embryos of the direct- and indirect-developing sea urchins  Heliocidaris erythrogramma and H. tuberculata. Devel. Genes Evol. 208: 82-93.

 140. Raff, R. A. 1998. Metazoan Phylogeny. In D. T. Anderson (ed.). Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford  University Press. pp. 416-438.

 141. Wray, G. A. and R. A. Raff. 1998. Body Builders of the Sea: Scientists are learning how seastars and their  five-sided relatives use "old" genes to make new bodies. Natural History, 107: 38-47.

 142. Popodi, E., M. J. Ferkowicz, M. E. Andrews, and R. A. Raff. 1998. Expression of engrailed and wnt-5 in the  developing sea urchin nervous system. In R. Mooi and M. Telford (eds). Echinoderms: San  Francisco. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. p.792.

 143. Popodi, E., J. A. Bolker, M. J. Ferkowicz, M. E. Andrews, and R. A. Raff. 1998. Development of the  sea urchin nervous system in Heliocidaris erythrogramma. In R. Mooi and M. Telford (eds). Echinoderms: San  Francisco. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam. p. 791.

 144. Raff, R. A. 1999. Cell lineages in larval development and evolution of echinoderms. In B. K. Hall and M. A. Wake  (eds.). The Origin and Evolution of Larval Forms. Academic Press. pp. 255-273.

 145. Raff, R. A. 1999. Creating the animal planet. (Book review) Trends Ecol. Evol., 14: 39.

 146. Raff, E. C., E. M. Popodi, B. J. Sly, F. R. Turner, J. T. Villinski, and R. A. Raff. 1999. A novel ontogenetic  pathway in hybrid embryos between species with different modes of development. Development  126:1937-1945.

 147. Haag, E. H., B. J. Sly, and R. A. Raff. 1999. Apextrin, a novel extracellular protein involved in  adaptive evolution of larval ectoderm in the direct-developing sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Dev.

 Biol. 211: 77-87.

 148. Byrne, M., J. T. Villinski, P. Cisternas, E.Popodi, and R.A.Raff. 1999. Maternal factors and the evolution of  developmental mode: Evolution of oogenesis in Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Devel. Genes Evol.  209: 275-283.

 149. Raff, R. A., W. Arthur, S. B. Carroll, M. I. Coates, and G. Wray. 1999. Chronicling the birth of a discipline.  Evo. Dev. 1: 1-2.

 150. Raff, R. A. 1999. Larval homologies and radical evolutionary changes in early development. in G. R.  Bock and G. Cardew (eds.) Homology. Wiley, Chichester. pp.110-121.

 151. Raff, R. A. 2000. And so they never mentioned it again. Evo & Devo. 2, 1-2.

 152. Nielsen, G., K. A. Wilson, E. C. Raff, and R. A. Raff. 2000. Novel gene expression patterns in hybrid  embryos between species with different modes of development.  Evo. Dev. 2:133-144.

 153. Raff, E. C. and R. A. Raff 2000. Dissociability, modularity, evolvability. Evo. Dev. 2:  235-237.

 154. Raff, R. A., and B. J. Sly. 2000. Modularity and dissociation in the evolution of gene expression  territories in development. Evo. Dev. 2: 102-113.

 155. .Popodi, E. and R. A. Raff 2001. Hox genes in a pentameral animal. BioEssays 23: 211-214.

 156. Ferkowicz, M. J. and R. A. Raff. 2001. Wnt gene expression in sea urchin development: Heterochronies associated with the evolution of developmental mode. Evo. Dev. 3: 24-33.

 157. Raff, R. A. 2000. Evo-devo: the evolution of a new discipline. Nature Reviews Genetics.  1: 74-79.   158. Frankino, A., and R. A. Raff. 2002. Evolutionary importance and pattern of phenotypic plasticity: Insights  gained from development. Phenotypic Plasticity. Functional and Conceptual Approaches. T. J. DeWitt &  S. M. Scheiner (Eds.). in press.

 159. Villinski, J. T., Villinski, J. C., Byrne, M. and Raff, R. A. 2002. Convergent maternal  provisioning and life-history evolution in Echinoderms. submitted.

 160. Minsuk, S. and R. A. Raff. 2002. Inductive interactions during development of the sea urchin adult  pentameral body plan. Dev. Biol. in press.

 161. Klueg, K. M., and R. A. Raff. 2002. Structure and evolution of a heterochronically expressed gene in the  direct-developing sea urchin, Heliocidaris erythrogramma. submitted  162. Raff, E. C., Popodi, E. M. Sly, B. J. , and Raff, R. A. 2001. Hybrid embryos between phylogenetically distant sea urchin species with different modes of development  reveal conserved regulatory systems. in preparation.

163. Stander, M. C. and R. A. Raff. 2002. Relationship between calcium carbonate deposition and  expression of primary mesenchyme cell-specific gene products in sea urchin embryos. Biol. Bull.   submitted 164. Stander, M. C., and R. A. Raff. 2002. Gene expression and adult skeleton formation in the   direct-developing sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. submitted.

165. Sly, B. J., J. Hazel, E. Popodi, and R. A. Raff. 2002. Expressed gene sequences in the  developing adult sea urchin central nervous system. Evo. Dev. in press.

166. Marshall, C. R., K. M. Klueg, and R. A. Raff. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships among   some camarodont sea urchins based on msp130, an embryo-expressed gene involved in  skeletogenesis. in preparation.

167. Villinski, J, T. Andrew, R. Whittaker*, and R. A. Raff. 2002. Maternally expressed gene sequences in eggs  of a sea urchin with a highly altered mode of development. in preparation.

168. Villinski, J. T., E. C. Raff, and R. A. Raff. 2002. Novel embryonic cell fate patterns in a hybrid between two sea urchin species with radically different modes of development. in preparation.

169. Raff, R. A. 2001. Metazoan Phylogeny. In D. T. Anderson (ed.). Invertebrate Zoology. Second Edition. Oxford University Press.  170. Raff, R. A. 2001. The creationist abuse of evo-devo. (Editorial). Evo. Dev. 3:373-374.

171. Wilson, K., and Raff, R. A. 2002. Dominant regulatory factors in the evolution of development: The role of Gooscoid in the evolution of the direct-developing sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. in preparation.

172. Kauffman, J. and Raff, R. A. 2002. Wnt signaling in the direct developing sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma: Distinct roles for TCF and Wnt8 in patterning and specification along the larval A/V axis. in preparation.

173. Minsuk, S, Popodi, E. M., Turner, F. R., Raff, E. C., and Raff, R. A. 2002. Dominant tissue interactions in chimaeric embryos. in preparation.